Transfer of functions based on equivalence class formation using musical stimuli.

Empirical evidence has supported that musical excerpts written in major and minor modes are responsible for evoking happiness and sadness, respectively. In this study, we evaluated whether the emotional content evoked by musical stimuli would transfer to abstract figures when they became members of the same equivalence class. Participants assigned to the experimental group were submitted to a training procedure to form equivalence classes comprising musical excerpts (A) and meaningless abstract figures (B, C, and D). Afterward, transfer of function was evaluated using a semantic differential. Participants in the control group showed positive semantic differential scores for major mode musical excerpts, negative scores for minor mode musical excerpts, and neutral scores for the B, C, and D stimuli. Participants in the experimental groups showed positive semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the major modes and negative semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the minor modes. These results indicate transfer of function of emotional content present in musical stimuli through equivalence class formation. These findings could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of using emotional stimuli in equivalence class formation experiments and in transfer of function itself.

Aprendizagem Simbólica de Crianças com Autismo: Potencial Preditivo de uma Tarefa / Symbolic Learning in Children with Autism: Predictive Value of a Prototype Task

RESUMO Testes preditivos de aprendizagem podem ser úteis para planejar intervenções mais efetivas para crianças com autismo. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar se um protótipo de tarefa, desenvolvido para estender o Teste ABLA-R (Avaliação de Habilidades Básicas de Aprendizagem), seria preditivo de aprendizagem simbólica (formação de classes de equivalência). Três crianças com autismo foram avaliadas pelo ABLA-R e pela tarefa protótipo (denominada Nível 7) e, em seguida, foram expostas a um protocolo de ensino e teste de relações de equivalência. As predições do Nível 7 se confirmaram para dois participantes e parcialmente para o terceiro. Embora sejam necessários mais estudos, os resultados sugerem que a tarefa do Nível 7 pode ser uma potencial adição ao ABLA-R.

ABSTRACT Predictive learning assessments may be useful for developing behavioral interventions for children with autism. The present study evaluated whether a prototype task, developed to extend the ABLA-R (Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities), would be predictive of symbolic learning (establishing equivalence classes). Three children with autism were assessed by the ABLA-R and the prototype task (referred as Level 7) and then exposed to training and testing for emergent conditional discriminations. The Level 7 predictions were confirmed for two participants and partially for the third. Although more studies are needed, the results suggest that the Level 7 task may be a potential addition to the ABLA-R.

Equivalence Class Formation in Individuals With Autism: Predictions From ABLA-R Levels.

Children who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often fail to show equivalence class formation. This may be related to their difficulty in learning the programmed baseline conditional discriminations. The present study investigated equivalence class formation after training visual identity-matching performance with auditory class-specific consequences in 6 individuals who were diagnosed with ASD and who achieved different levels (Levels 4, 5, and 6) on the Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities-Revised (ABLA-R). The potentially emergent relations were all arbitrary (relations between completely dissimilar stimuli): visual-visual (AB and BA) and auditory-visual (SA and SB). None of the participants who achieved ABLA-R Level 4 or 5 responded in accord with equivalence class formation. They did not present any emergent arbitrary conditional relations (either visual-visual relations or auditory-visual relations). Only participants who achieved ABLA-R Level 6 demonstrated equivalence class formation. These findings are consistent with the predictive ability of the ABLA-R with regard to the acquisition of discriminations and to the emergence of the same type of conditional relations and the same hierarchy of complexity.

Modelos de saúde mental e doença mental: Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicotécnica (1949-1968) / Models on Mental Health and Mental Illness: Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicotécnica (1949-1968) / Modelos de salud mental y enfermedad mental: Archivos Brasileños de Psicotecnia (1949-1968)

Este artigo objetivou descrever e analisar conhecimentos e práticas que influenciavam o modelo de compreensão de saúde mental e de doença mental, no período de 1949-1968, com a finalidade de esclarecer a definição da expressão "problemas de ajustamento", como foco da atividade do psicólogo, no Brasil. Para tanto, utilizando-se a história quantitativa e a história digital, foram analisados artigos publicados, no referido período, nos Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicotécnica. Os resultados sugerem controvérsias sobre os modelos de compreensão de saúde mental e doença mental. Foram identificados embates entre dois modelos psiquiátricos: a "nova psiquiatria", que estaria em construção, e uma "psiquiatria tradicional". Tais modelos de compreensão produziam diferentes práticas terapêuticas. Finalmente, "problemas de ajustamento" poderiam ter relação com as práticas terapêuticas, como a reabilitação, uma vez que remeteriam a uma visão de mundo em que indivíduo e coletividade seriam inseparáveis

This article aims to describe and to analyze ideas and practices that impacted on an understanding model of mental health and mental illness in the period 1949-1968. This analysis helps to clarify the definition of the term "adjustment problems" as a legal object of the psychologist's activities in Brazil. This is a historical investigation based on quantitative history and digital history of Psychology in which articles published in the Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicotécnica during such period are analyzed. Results suggest controversies over the models of understanding mental health and mental illness that promoted different therapeutic practices. There were clashes between two psychiatric models: the "new psychiatry" - under construction - and a "traditional psychiatry". In this scenario, a framework established that individual and collectivity would be inseparable and "adjustment problems" would be related to therapeutic practices, such as rehabilitation

Este artículo tuvo como objetivo describir y analizar el conocimiento y las prácticas que influyeron en el modelo de comprensión de la salud mental y la enfermedad mental, en el período 1949-1968, con el fin de aclarar la definición de la expresión "problemas de ajuste", como un enfoque de la actividad del psicólogo, en Brasil. Por lo tanto, utilizando la historia cuantitativa y la historia digital, se analizaron los artículos publicados en el período mencionado en los Archivos Brasileños de Psicotecnia. Los resultados sugieren controversias sobre los modelos de comprensión de la salud mental y la enfermedad mental. Se identificaron enfrentamientos entre dos modelos psiquiátricos: la "nueva psiquiatría", que estaría en construcción y una "psiquiatría tradicional". Tales modelos de comprensión produjeron diferentes prácticas terapéuticas. Finalmente, los "problemas de ajuste" podrían estar relacionados con las prácticas terapéuticas, como la rehabilitación, ya que se referirían a una visión del mundo en la que individuo y colectividad serían inseparables

Corrigendum: Early Trauma and Cognitive Functions of Patients With Schizophrenia.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00261.].

Early Trauma and Cognitive Functions of Patients With Schizophrenia.

Aim: The following work aims to investigate the putative correlation between early trauma and cognitive functions, as well as psychotic symptoms and cognitive functions, in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia. Methods: A quantitative assessment was performed with 20 individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia according to the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) criteria and who were in ongoing outpatient treatment in Psychosocial Care Centres in Brazil. Clinical measurements comprised a semistructured clinical interview, a screening questionnaire for common mental disorders, the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), and the Early Trauma Inventory Self-Report-Short Form (ETISR-SF). Cognitive assessment included Beta III test, Concentrated Attention (CA) test, Color Trails Test (CTT), and Visual Face Memory (VFM) test. Results: Age-adjusted analysis showed a negative correlation between early trauma and visual memory performance (r = -0.585, p = 0.007) and negative symptoms and attention performance (r = -0.715, p = 0.000). Conclusion: Although a cause-effect relationship cannot be firmly stated, an association between early trauma experience and cognitive impairment such as visual memory, as well as a relationship between negative symptoms and attention domains, is suggested by our preliminary findings. Future studies with larger sample sizes and prospective design will clarify the long-term effects of early exposure to trauma and its clinical meaning in terms of developing psychotic-related illness.

Breves considerações sobre a atenção à pessoa com transtorno do espectro autista na rede pública de saúde / Brief considerations regarding the attention to individuals with autism spectrum disorder in the public health system / Breves consideraciones sobre la atención a la persona con trastorno del espectro autista en la red pública de salud

O Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) é uma desordem do neurodesenvolvimento, caracterizada por déficits na comunicação social e presença de padrões de comportamento repetitivos. Como uma condição usualmente crônica, o TEA normalmente requer atenção de equipes interdisciplinares por afetar o desenvolvimento de forma global. Recentemente, o Ministério da Saúde publicou dois documentos que estabelecem a linha de cuidado e as diretrizes para sua reabilitação na rede pública de saúde brasileira. O presente artigo caracteriza e analisa a linha de cuidado proposta e as abordagens terapêuticas recomendadas. A análise permitiu verificar que os documentos reafirmam que pessoas com TEA são indivíduos com os mesmos direitos de pessoas com deficiência, seu cuidado deve ocorrer de maneira multidisciplinar pela Rede de Atenção Psicossocial, mas faltou clareza quanto aos critérios de escolha das abordagens terapêuticas e o local em que estas seriam oferecidas. Algumas implicações para o tratamento do TEA são discutidas.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (TEA) is a neurodevelopmental disorder, characterized by deficits in social communication and by the presence of repetitive patterns of behavior. As a chronic condition, TEAD usually requires attention from interdisciplinary teams as it affects development in many areas. Recently, the Brazilian Ministry of Health (MS) published two documents establishing the guidelines for attention and rehabilitation of people with TEA in the national public health system. This article aims to characterize and analyze these guidelines and the recommended therapeutic approaches. The analysis showed the recognition of the TEA as a condition with the same rights as people with disabilities. The care approach is essentially multidisciplinary and supported by the Psychosocial Attention Network, but the criteria for recommending the therapeutic approaches and the place where therapies would be offered are not clear. Some implications for TEA treatment are discussed.

El Trastorno del Espectro Autista (TEA) es un desorden del neurodesarrollo, caracterizado por déficits en la comunicación social y presencia de patrones de comportamiento repetitivo. Como una condición usualmente crónica, el TEA normalmente requiere atención de equipos interdisciplinares pues afecta el desarrollo de manera global. Recientemente, el Ministerio de Salud publicó dos documentos que establecen la línea de cuidado y las directrices para su rehabilitación en la red pública de salud brasileña. El presente artículo caracteriza y analiza la línea de cuidado propuesta y las intervenciones terapéuticas recomendadas. El análisis permitió verificar que los documentos reafirman que personas con TEA son individuos con los mismos derechos que personas con discapacidad, y su cuidado debe realizarse de manera multidisciplinar por la Red de Atención Psicosocial, pero faltó aclarar en lo que se refiere a los criterios de elección de las intervenciones terapéuticas y el local donde dichos tratamientos serían ofrecidos. También se discuten algunas implicaciones para el tratamiento del TEA.

Generalization of equivalence relations from photos to objects by preschool children.

Generalized equivalence classes are stimulus classes that consist of equivalent stimuli and other physically similar class-member stimuli. The present study evaluated whether preschool children would form equivalence classes among photos of abstract objects (2D) and show equivalence generalization to the corresponding objects (3D), printed photos (2D stimuli), and to black-and-white drawn pictures (2D stimuli). Six typically developing children were taught arbitrary relations to establish three 3-member equivalence classes with 2D stimuli presented on a computer screen. AB-AC baseline relations (for half of the participants) and AB-BC relations (for the other half) were taught using a multiple-probe design to assess taught and tested relations. After class formation, three types of generalization probes were conducted: generalization to 3D stimuli, generalization between 2D (printed photos) and 3D stimuli, and generalization to drawn pictures (2D). All of the participants formed the equivalence classes. Two participants met the criterion for all three generalization probe types. Two participants presented mixed results across tests, and two participants did not exhibit equivalence generalization. The results demonstrated equivalence generalization from 2D to 3D stimuli in preschool children, although the variability across participants suggests that such generalization cannot be assumed a priori.

Using class-specific compound consequences to teach dictated and printed letter relations to a child with autism.

The effects of class-specific compound consequences embedded in an identity-matching task to establish arbitrary emergent relations were evaluated. A 3-year-old child with autism was taught identity relations between lowercase letters (Set 1) and uppercase letters (Set 2). A compound stimulus that consisted of an auditory component (dictated letter name) and a visual component (an uppercase letter for Set 1 or lowercase letter for Set 2) followed correct responses. All targeted arbitrary relations emerged (uppercase-lowercase, lowercase-uppercase, dictated name/uppercase, and dictated name/lowercase), suggesting that this procedure may be useful for teaching.

Emergence of auditory-visual relations from a visual-visual baseline with auditory-specific consequences in individuals with autism.

Empirical studies have demonstrated that class-specific contingencies may engender stimulus-reinforcer relations. In these studies, crossmodal relations emerged when crossmodal relations comprised the baseline, and intramodal relations emerged when intramodal relations were taught during baseline. This study investigated whether auditory-visual relations (crossmodal) would emerge after participants learned a visual-visual baseline (intramodal) with auditory stimuli presented as specific consequences. Four individuals with autism learned AB and CD relations with class-specific reinforcers. When A1 and C1 were presented as samples, the selections of B1 and D1, respectively, were followed by an edible (R1) and a sound (S1). Selections of B2 and D2 under the control of A2 and C2, respectively, were followed by R2 and S2. Probe trials tested for visual-visual AC, CA, AD, DA, BC, CB, BD, and DB emergent relations and auditory-visual SA, SB, SC, and SD emergent relations. All of the participants demonstrated the emergence of all auditory-visual relations, and three of four participants showed emergence of all visual-visual relations. Thus, the emergence of auditory-visual relations from specific auditory consequences suggests that these relations do not depend on crossmodal baseline training. The procedure has great potential for applied technology to generate auditory-visual discriminations and stimulus classes in the context of behavior-analytic interventions for autism.

Assessing restricted stimulus control in typically developing preschool children and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata)

This study established a simple simultaneous discrimination between a pair of two-element compound visual stimuli in children (Experiment 1) and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata, Experiment 2). The contingencies required discriminative control by the compound and the question was whether the accurate stimulus control reached at this level would hold for each individual element of the compound. After baseline reached stability, probe trials assessed stimulus control by each single element of both S+ and S-. Average data showed that children (Exp. 1) tended to show stimulus control by a single element of the S+ compound. In Experiment 2 three of four bees showed stimulus control by both elements of S+ and did not respond or responded only infrequently to the elements of the S-. The children's decline in discrimination accuracy in probe trials, along with its maintenance during the baseline, replicated previous findings showing the development of restricted stimulus control (RSC). The precise stimulus control shown by the bees indicated that all elements correlated with reinforcement acquired stimulus control over their behavior; this confirms the extensive literature on visual discriminative learning in bees, but due to the small number of subjects it is premature to say that bees do not develop RSC...

Assessing restricted stimulus control in typically developing preschool children and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata)

This study established a simple simultaneous discrimination between a pair of two-element compound visual stimuli in children (Experiment 1) and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata, Experiment 2). The contingencies required discriminative control by the compound and the question was whether the accurate stimulus control reached at this level would hold for each individual element of the compound. After baseline reached stability, probe trials assessed stimulus control by each single element of both S+ and S-. Average data showed that children (Exp. 1) tended to show stimulus control by a single element of the S+ compound. In Experiment 2 three of four bees showed stimulus control by both elements of S+ and did not respond or responded only infrequently to the elements of the S-. The children's decline in discrimination accuracy in probe trials, along with its maintenance during the baseline, replicated previous findings showing the development of restricted stimulus control (RSC). The precise stimulus control shown by the bees indicated that all elements correlated with reinforcement acquired stimulus control over their behavior; this confirms the extensive literature on visual discriminative learning in bees, but due to the small number of subjects it is premature to say that bees do not develop RSC.(AU)

Equivalência de estímulos e autismo: uma revisão de estudos empíricos / Stimulus equivalence and autism: a review of empirical studies

O modelo de equivalência de estímulos oferece uma especificação operacional do comportamento simbólico e tem orientado o ensino e a verificação objetiva de repertórios novos. Pessoas com autismo, caracterizadas por apresentarem, entre outras alterações, graves déficits de linguagem, poderiam se beneficiar de estratégias baseadas neste modelo. Este artigo apresenta uma revisão de publicações de estudos empíricos com autistas, fundamentados no paradigma de equivalência. Os resultados mostraram sucesso de alguns participantes e fracasso de outros. Os fracassos parecem residir mais em dificuldades em aprender relações arbitrárias e menos na emergência de relações novas após aquisição da linha de base. O desafio para a área é desenvolver procedimentos que favoreçam a aprendizagem de relações arbitrárias e, consequentemente, a formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes.(AU)

The model of stimulus equivalence offers an operational specification of symbolic behavior, thus orienting teaching strategies and allowing for objective measures of new behavioral repertoires. Autistic persons, often characterized by presenting, among other disabilities, severe language deficits, could benefit from strategies based on this model. This paper reviews the few empirical studies conducted with autistic participants, based on the stimulus equivalence paradigm. Some participants were successful, while others failed. The failures seem to be more related to difficulties in learning arbitrary relations rather than to the emergence of novel relations itself, after the baseline has been established. The challenge for the field is to develop procedures that are truly effective in establishing arbitrary relations and, consequently, the formation of equivalence classes.(AU)

Equivalência de estímulos e autismo: uma revisão de estudos empíricos / Stimulus equivalence and autism: a review of empirical studies

O modelo de equivalência de estímulos oferece uma especificação operacional do comportamento simbólico e tem orientado o ensino e a verificação objetiva de repertórios novos. Pessoas com autismo, caracterizadas por apresentarem, entre outras alterações, graves déficits de linguagem, poderiam se beneficiar de estratégias baseadas neste modelo. Este artigo apresenta uma revisão de publicações de estudos empíricos com autistas, fundamentados no paradigma de equivalência. Os resultados mostraram sucesso de alguns participantes e fracasso de outros. Os fracassos parecem residir mais em dificuldades em aprender relações arbitrárias e menos na emergência de relações novas após aquisição da linha de base. O desafio para a área é desenvolver procedimentos que favoreçam a aprendizagem de relações arbitrárias e, consequentemente, a formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes.

The model of stimulus equivalence offers an operational specification of symbolic behavior, thus orienting teaching strategies and allowing for objective measures of new behavioral repertoires. Autistic persons, often characterized by presenting, among other disabilities, severe language deficits, could benefit from strategies based on this model. This paper reviews the few empirical studies conducted with autistic participants, based on the stimulus equivalence paradigm. Some participants were successful, while others failed. The failures seem to be more related to difficulties in learning arbitrary relations rather than to the emergence of novel relations itself, after the baseline has been established. The challenge for the field is to develop procedures that are truly effective in establishing arbitrary relations and, consequently, the formation of equivalence classes.

Report of the international forum on pandemic influenza 2010 Qingdao, China, 24-25 July 2010.

The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic is the first pandemic to hit the world in the 21st century. According to World Health Organization (WHO) reports, as of 18 July 2010, more than 214 countries and overseas territories or communities have reported laboratory confirmed cases of pandemic influenza H1N1 2009, and over 18,336 people have died as a result of the disease [1]. In an effort to facilitate the exchange of strategic and operational experience in the fight against the pandemic, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), supported by the China Ministry of Health, in collaboration with WHO, the World Bank, the U.S. CDC, and co-organised with the Elsevier Publishing Group, hosted the International Forum on Pandemic Influenza 2010 in July. The two-day meeting, attended by over 600 international delegates, saw human health and animal health professionals discuss the current situation of the pandemic, the global response and vaccination strategies, pandemic surveillance and preparedness, and the animal-human interface in influenza and other emerging infectious diseases. A summary of the discussions is presented here.

Escala de sobrecarga dos familiares de pacientes psiquiátricos: adaptação transcultural para o Brasil (FBIS-BR) / Family burden scale for caregivers of psychiatric patients: transcultural adaptation to Brazil (FBIS-BR)

Introdução: O processo de desinstitucionalização psiquiátrica resultou em maior envolvimento dos familiares nos cuidados cotidianos dos pacientes que sofrem de doenças mentais. Pesquisas internacionais constataram que os cuidados prestados e as responsabilidades envolvidas em cuidar dos pacientes implicam em sobrecarga para os familiares. No Brasil existem poucas pesquisas sobre sobrecarga familiar e um dos motivos pode ser a carência de instrumentos de medida para avaliar a sobrecarga. Objetivo: Este estudo visou fazer a adaptação transcultural para o Brasil da escala Family Burden Interview Schedule (FBIS), elaborada por Tessler e Gamache. Métodos: A adaptação transcultural foi realizada segundo os procedimentos recomendados pela literatura internacional: tradução por um tradutor bilingüe de língua inglesa; retradução, do português para o inglês, por um tradutor bilingüe de língua portuguesa; correção dos erros de tradução, comparando-se as duas versões em inglês; avaliação da escala por uma comissão de especialistas; e um estudo-piloto para testar a versão preliminar do instrumento no qual foram entrevistados 20 familiares de pacientes psiquiátricos. Resultados: Os resultados incluíram modificações importantes na formulação e no conteúdo das questões para garantir a equivalência semântica e cultural da escala adaptada para o contexto brasileiro. Conclusões: As modificações introduzidas permitiram a redação da escala em uma linguagem clara, acessível a qualquer respondente, independente de seu nível socioeconômico e de escolaridade, além de incluir situações que refletiam as variáveis culturais. A versão brasileira da FBIS (FBIS-BR) se mostrou uma escala de fácil aplicação e compreensão pela população-alvo.